Arts & Visual Literacy Exploring Visual Tactics and Strategies Assignment

Arts & Visual Literacy Exploring Visual Tactics and Strategies - Assignment Example The essay will relay more information on the visual literacy and some of the tactics used by Frida Kahlo as depicted in her portrait, â€Å"The Two Fridas†. The portrait is a full description of Frida’s two different personalities. On the right is the image of Frida holding an amulet, the amulet bears the image of Diego, her former husband. The image on the right portrays a Frida that was not only respected but also loved by Diego and the amulet having Diego’s image is evident how close they were while still couples (â€Å"Frida Kahlo Fans†). The image also Shows Frida wearing a Tehuana costume, this costume was always worn by native Mexican women and by wearing it, Frida portrayed her love for Diego who was a Mexican. Conversely, on the left is a very different Frida. Unlike the Frida on the right who is in love, the other Frida is in pain and anguish since she is no longer married. She is wearing a white Victorian wedding gown symbolizing she was once married and the wedding gown is the proof. Unlike the first Frida that was holding an amulet bearing Diego’s image, the Frida in white is holding surgical pincers. The amulet in Frida’s arms is the source of a vein that goes through the women’s hearts. The Frida in Tehuana costume is not bothered with the vein connecting her with Diego because she is in love; conversely, the rejected Frida has cut the vein linking her to Diego. Cutting the vein has caused bleeding and Frida is not able to stop it, this symbolizes that after the being divorced, she went through trauma to the extent that she felt like dying (â€Å"Frida Kahlo Fans†). The two Fridas hearts are exposed; the heart of Frida in love is whole whereas the divorced Frida has a broken heart. This is clear indication that Frida is in in agony after her lover left her and in the process left her heart incomplete with no one to

The Applicability of the Porter Diamonds Framework Essay Example for Free

The Applicability of the Porter Diamonds Framework Essay The car industry contributes for 40% of German exports. Germany is the third world car producer and approximately 6 million cars are produced every year. Among these firms are the luxury firms such as BMW, Mercedes, Porsche and Audi. Let’s consider, first of all, the factors conditions in relation to the car industry. These factors express the Nation’s position in factors of production such as unskilled labor, skilled labor, infrastructure, natural resources†¦ * The industries are based on a high technological region, in the center of a zone of economic development. * Germany has always considered very important the transmission of scientific and technical knowledge: from the mid XIX century, a huge net of technical schools has been created (the Gewerbeschulen). Those schools became later engineers school and technical universities. Today, Germany sustain this effort in favor of a â€Å"knowledge society† by taking measures such as the â€Å"Exzellenzinitiative† which is backed by Angela Merkel and allocate 1,9 billions in order to maintain German research among the top 3 in the world. This initiative wishes also to sustain the creation of clusters. * In Germany, approximately one job out of seven is linked (directly or indirectly) to the car industry. The labor is very skilled. * Germany’s position is also an advantage: the country is in the heart of Europe and shares borders with many countries. * The transport infrastructure is optimal (railway, important harbors, road infrastructure†¦) The Demand conditions are another factor of the Porter’s diamond: * The local consumer is demanding: quality is very important * Huge population. * The wage level is high among the population * Increase of revenue levels in emerging countries. The demand abroad is high. The Related and supporting industries (clusters of industries) factors: * Presence of competitive suppliers * Presence of clusters (and government incentives in order to develop them) * Presence of a labor market that develops specific skills relevant for the cluster Firm strategy, structure and rivalry factors: * The four luxury brands are based in the same region. Therefore there is a strong competitiveness among them. However, each brand has a specific positioning. * The local context favors investments and constant improvements. Government: * There are no speed limits in Germany therefore sport cars can be used to their full potential. * Incentives to sustain scientific development and the creation of clusters. [ 1 ]. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_de_l%27Allemagne.

Capitalism, Marketing, and the Insidious and Covert Co-optation of the

Capitalism, Marketing, and the Insidious and Covert Co-optation of the Self Subtitle: A Manifesto for Avatars 1. Introducing Avatars AVATARA-Sanskrit.; ava-'down', tarati-'he goes, passes beyond' literally, 'a descent', a conception described in the Bhagavad gita, 4th Teaching, 1-8 where Krishna confides: "when goodness grows weak, when evil increases, I make myself a body." (OED) Originally referring to the incarnation of Hindu deities, avatars in the computing realms have come to mean any of the various "strap-on" visual agents that represent the user in increasing numbers of 2 and 3D worlds. (Lonehead, ONLINE SOURCE, NO PAGE NUM) This essay studies the covert, market driven forces at work in our choices of images for the avatars inhabiting cyberspace, in order to understand the dangers of the exchange of self-images for advertisements. To forge a set of alternative resistant and forceful conditions for imaging what Sherry Turkle has termed "the second self," tactics based in imaging, language, and psychology can be opposed to the insidious and covert co-optation of the self by commodities. This essay is an attempt to examine the construction of alternative figures as models of resistance. The Manifesto for Avatars offers a formal set of oppositional strategies for constructing unconsumable self-images. The apparent freedom of identity and gender enjoyed by the participants in multi-user domains and the Internet in general (Langley, Stone) is a dangerous illusion, masking the corporate agendas dominating the nature and spirit of the construction of cyberspace and avatars. Imagine an internet chat room where we are all represented by the commodity of our choice. Much like the large, recognizable logos th... ...hler, L. Cartwright, and C. Penley. New York: New York University Press, 1998, 312-314 Stephenson, Neal. SnowCrash, New York, Bantam Books, 1992. Stone, Allucquere Rosanne."Will the Real Body Please Stand Up?: Boundary Stories About Virtual Cultures." In Cyberspace: First Steps, ed. Benedikt, 82-85. Talking Heads. "Once in a Lifetime." Perf. David Byrne, Brian Eno, Chris Frantz, Jerry Harrison, Tina Weymouth. Remain in Light. Sire Records, 1980. Thacker, Eugene. ".../visible_human.html/digital anatomy and the hyper-texted body", CTHEORY, 2 June, 1998. Online, n pag. Oct. 1998. http://www.ctheory.com/a60.html Turkle, Sherry. The Second Self-Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. Ziff-Davis TV, Inc. "If You Build It, They Will Come." thesite: The Avatars 97 Conference. Aug. 1997 Online, n pag. ZdNet Sept. 1998 .

Three Wishes

Three wishes are upon me and three wishes are my lead into achieve what I want. These wishes can or cannot grant what I want but they will surely help me think what the most important things in my life are. I got these three wishes for my great personality and my positiveness. I have three wishes that I would like to wish for, even though if they can’t be granted at least the most important thing is to try it by my own. These wishes are the lead to my happiness and they are, wishing to visit Osaka Japan, second is to wish to pass my ENG 010 class and the final wish is to graduate from college.Wishing to visit Japan is one thing I always wanted. Even though I don't speak Japanese, there are things do and places to go that don’t need language skills. There are plenty of wishes I would like to wish for, but visiting Osaka Japan is one of first one that I have in mind. Wishing to visit a place isn't really a wish because you can do it whenever you want if you have money. I wish to visit Japan not only because is a famous country, instead, is because I would love to interact into a different culture.I choose this wish since money is a problem when talk about vacations. For example, when people talk about vacation, the first thing they think about is money. Since money is the lead into do whatever you like, going to an expensive place would be impressive. I prefer this wish than others because visiting a far place will not be an opportunity that I would have every day. In addition, I would love this wish since life is about time I want to pass some of that time being happy and free from problems. Passing a class on school is a big deal for me.My second wish would be about passing my ENG 010 class. I choose this wish because I want to pass that class, finish the year and finally graduate. This wish is my second most important in my life not only because is about my education but because my future is ahead of me. If this wish can be granted, my life would be easier in several ways. For example, if this wish is granted maybe I could have the ability to do much better. Also, this wish could give me more knowledge by studying more into passing the class.I wish to pass this class since this is the one I’m doing worst, I also don’t want it to be the first one I failed for the first time. I choose this wish instead of others because failing a class is a nightmare. For example, you will have to pay for the class all over again each time you failed it. Also, you have to work on things you already done. Finally, each time you failed a class you will be one step further from your career. Passing my English class has been a frustrating moment for me and that’s why I want this wish to be granted.Graduating from college is my first and most important wish I have. This wish is unique from others because it can lead me into achieving what I want, which is graduating from college. This wish will give me the benefit to finally g et one step closer to my career. I choose this wish because this is the one which will show me my future. For example, if I get this wish granted, I will see me myself working on a big company in the future. This can be done by completing my education and begin to do what I want to.I prefer this wish not only because is about my education instead since I will know by then that when I graduate I will have master my skills in any subject. If this wish is granted, it will be easier for me because this wish will improve my knowledge on studying and brings me more hope onto pass my four years without any problem. Having this wish granted or not, I will still be happy and trying hard to finish college. Having wishes is one of the greatest things I always wanted. These three wishes can change my life in several ways. These three wishes can change others life’s in several ways.I have three wishes which they are important in my life, even though if they can’t be granted, I woul d still be happy for what I had. Having the opportunity to go to Osaka Japan is amazing since is really expensive. Passing my ENG 010 class can be a great time for me because I will be one step closer to my graduation. Finally, graduating from college is the best thing that could happen to me; one step closer to be part of the career I want. Where there is hope, there are always wishes and I will still be happy if these wishes aren't granted.

Is Benjamin Franklin a Quintessential American?

Being a quintessential person in the American setting requires several elements that are identified and attached by other people as a true characteristic of patriotism. The picture drawn for quintessence is one where the person serves as the ideal model for the American people and the steps taken by the person are to be remembered as these are the ideals that put forward progress within the nation once adopted in good terms.Despite the lack of spontaneous and complete information com/his-review-of-the-autobiography-of-benjamin-ben-franklin-all/">written by Benjamin Franklin regarding some events in his life, he has shown to be a quintessential American from his early years up to the last pages of his autobiography. First, he has the brevity and courage that pushed him never to give up and try all the resources at his reach. When he was working for his brother, differences are highlighted among them and he decided to leave him (Franklin, 1996). He proceeded to move to other areas wher e he could get employment as his brother prevented him from getting employed in their town (Franklin, 1996).Employment is an important part of the economy and more and more people are competing for the different jobs available. For some, it becomes very difficult that lead them to give up. However, Benjamin Franklin tried all the means at his disposal and never gave up. Eventually, at the later part of the book, it proves to be the most important characteristic that gave him success in life as he proves to be a real-life example of the American Dream, which at that time is an element attached to the American country.The perseverance, courage, and brevity in the challenges faced in life are important because these are needed in coping through difficult times. Moreover, these positive attitude and approaches serve as factors towards success in overcoming problems. Second, the courage to make a difference and help others can be seen as a small, yet significant, act that contributes to progress. In the early part of his autobiography, Benjamin Franklin helped a man from drowning as they met a storm during his trip away from his brother (Franklin, 1996).Acts of kindness and generosity when adopted as a way of everyday living could make a change in the way people treat one another. It serves as a means through which cooperation could be enhanced and the trust of people with one another rebuilt. With what Benjamin Franklin did, he showed that it is possible to help other people and make a difference in their lives. Third, Benjamin Franklin portrays an image of a person who is always thirsty for knowledge and never ceases to hone and earn these in every single way he can.Education is an important investment for people as this is seen to be a tool which one can rely on in pursuit of progress. It serves as the vehicle for development in one country where investing in the education of the people is a step taken towards the betterment in the society and uplifting the cond itions of living. The very reason as to why the government steers and places education among its priorities is because it wants its citizens to be literate. Likewise, every individual aims for it because of the advantage it gives in terms of employment and career growth.Unfortunately, only a few of the people nowadays are given access to formal institutions of education and receive a diploma. This leaves potential skills and talents unharnessed and serve as a wasted resource for the country when not put into use. Fourth, he has proven himself as a genius because of the discoveries he made in relation to science, such as that of the stove. Aside from being a hardworking business man, he managed to become affiliated with science as he made his studies with his goals aligned with that of science. This goal is to provide easier and more efficient means in terms of carrying out tasks and other activities.He has given his time and effort in order to provide scientific advancements, which may not be as significant as the others but still remain to be an applauded achievement. His dedication to make his own contributions gave him the chance to give discover for the use of the people. Fifth, he constantly made himself aware of the political issues that abound the nation and made the move to help such as his act of writing proposals to gather funds to support colonial defense during the war between England and France (Franklin, 1996).While he may not have a personal interest in terms of the war, he still had the initiative to provide for support and make his cause ripple through his solicitations. His support for the political causes reflects a support for the country and the initiative to help in times where there is a great need. This is important because having people who are aware of the situation is sometimes not enough. There is a greater need for people who wish to take action during times where an active approach is needed.Every little act of support counts when it makes a difference and contributes to the purpose of the country. Lastly, he has served for volunteer works for the country and the citizens. Volunteerism is a spirit that gives people a chance to know that they can do something to help solve problems. Even if it is seen as a tiny dot compared to the larger cause that is found in the society, volunteering for different causes is still counted as an important part of giving and serving the country.With the different initiatives and achievements Benjamin Franklin narrated in his book, he is really seen as a quintessential American. This is especially true in fulfilling the expectations attached to the American Dream. Beyond this, he has selflessly dedicated himself to the service of his nation and in making his own personal contributions in making a difference for the society. Reference Franklin, B. (1996). The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, Dover Thrift Edition. New York: Dover Publications.

Communication across cultures Essay Example

Communication across cultures Essay Example Communication across cultures Paper Communication across cultures Paper The article presents an approach towards the critical interpretation of nonverbal cues from different language with respect to global communication whose importance has increased in the modern world especially due to globalization of international trade. Has been on the. In the introductory paragraph of the article, communication is explained as merely the exchange information that may take broad shape depending on people culture, first knowledge and level of education. Communication is also a way of passing our attitudes, emotions and desires using either spoken or non-spoken language. According to the article, sometimes due to language barriers that exist in passing our emotions and desires, sometime it becomes very crucial to understand the different ways we can improve communication on a global scale especially in this current era where business has been globalized and therefore transactions being made by people from diverse cultural background. Ideally, global communication is the ability to access information and transfer information across cultures throughout the world through listening, speaking and acting. Global communication is specifically very important in the business field due to the manner in which business tractions are carried out in the modern world. It is most important in areas where language barriers and cultural specification critically influence efficiency and quality of communication (Ainsworth, 2013). Communication in business remain a key factor toward s success of any business thus establishing global communication call for effectively understanding both verbal and non- verbal communication alongside interpreting languages into different mode that can be understood by people from diverse culture. The importance and the significance role of global communication was given a lot of weight after the Second World War with technological advancement and increased importance international relations. Global communication has increased its importance more specifically to evolutionary of global trade aided by technological advancements. Global communication is may take two forms with respect to corporate communication (Ainsworth, 2013). For instance, internal communication within a business will involve passage of information from within a business organization for example senior management to subordinate workers. International for of global communication in loves remittance and acquisition of information from international sources that are usually international. Article summary The article presents an illustration of the use of both verbal and non-verbal communication to aid communication global communication in international trade. In most instances, communication barriers arise due to cultural and language differences. In this event verbal and non-verbal cues offers a solution that facilities passage of information between business persons to ensure the transactions are effectively executed. For instance, in the event of language barrier as result of having different languages that each party cannot understanding, non- verbal cues are present ads vital item that offers a communication mean though crude to link the buyers and the seller in the international market (Ainsworth, 2013). In the event of misunderstanding between buyers and the seller, verbal cues offers a good channel through which the information not clearly understood is reinforced. This is most effective where both parties in a transaction are able to verbally communicate. Sometime s in case of language barriers the verbal cues offers a platform for eliminating any doubt and miscommunication by enabling the parties seek the assistance of a language translator. This ensures that message from each party in clear understood despite the challenges encountered in the communication process. According to Ainsworth (2013), every culture is very different and operates under different sets of rules which some of its members take for granted while others accord the required concern unto them. In the article, verbal and non-verbal communication strategies are established as the main drivers for reliable communication. Essentially, the articles tries to figure out the impacts of having a working communication systems across cultures as well as bringing into light the key elements of intercultural communication especially in business fields. Most importantly, according to Ainsworth, it is apparent that most of the worldwide business organizations recognize the impacts and the importance of intercultural communication as well as the significance of verbal and non-verbal communication cues. In fact, it is evident that globalization has played a major role in integrating the impacts of intercultural connections across the globe. Through critical understanding of the generalization in communication, verbal and non-verbal techniques have made the business field accomplish their desired goals and objectives by interlinking individuals and organizations from diverse spheres. However, the efficiency in international communication is profoundly influenced by cultural differences. The major challenge in communication and especially in business terms is that even when the communicating parties approach each other in good will, it is always perceived that miscommunication will likely cut short the endeavor especially in the event of cultural differences between them. More importantly, miscommunication, which is a result of poor use of verbal and non-verbal skills may lead to conflicts or augment the conflict, which may be present even before the meeting of the involved parties. The article goes further to explain the truth about different communication variables such as; time, space and responsibility as well as the personal fate in regards to verbal and non-verbal communication approaches. Critically, the article shows how communication in business practices is affected by global cultural concerns, ethnicity, personal communication techniques; that is the verbal and the non-verbal strategies. Inherently, according to the author of the article, non-verbal communication is the communication that makes sense in the absence of the words. Discussion When comparing this article with the other four read articles, I found there were several similarities as well as differences that were vivid after a critical analysis of the five. Terragni (2010), embarked on the idea that business communication depended fully on the effective application of the verbal and the non-verbal communication approaches. In the second article, the author majored on the idea that gender, ethnicity and cross-cultural differences were key to the effective business communication and that the three have profound impacts on the success of business communication set up, both locally and internationally (Longoria, 2006). In the third article, it was evident that the author recognized that business communication depends much on the efficient and realistic incorporation of individuals from diverse backgrounds as solution to the bigger differences that occur during international business communication processes (Lustig, Koester Zhuang, 2006). In the fourth article, I was able to find out that Martin Nakayama, (2007), wanted to show the world that the best way to communicate both verbally and non-verbally is by understanding that people from diverse cultures have different ways of communicating. In conclusion, all the articles offer a basic understanding of how individuals in communication should be flexible and open to change while in different environments. References Ainsworth, J. (2013). Business Languages for Intercultural and International Business Communication: A Canadian Case Study. Business Communication Quarterly, 76(1), 28- 50. Doi: 10.1177/1080569912471186 Longoria, R. (2006). Communication across cultures. interactions, 13(2), 28. Lustig, M. W., Koester, J., Zhuang, E. (2006). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures. Pearson/A and B. Martin, J. N., Nakayama, T. K. (2007). Intercultural communication in contexts. Terragni, G. (2010). Communication across cultures. arq: architectural research quarterly, 14, 193.

The Innovative Woman essays

Zora Neale Hurston/The Innovative Woman essays Zora Neale Hurston: The Innovative Woman Is Zora Neale Hurston the greatest writers/ anthropologists in the twentieth century? Will Hurstons contributions to the Harlem Renaissance be remembered forever? Many statistics show that Hurstons innovative mind helped her attain these standards, setting her apart from all the other writers. Hurston achieved her goals by writing about the most ordinary things and making them infinitely gorgeous. With the completion of these goals Hurston became the first black American to have collected and published Afro-American folklore. Zora Neale Hurston, was a successful writer whose major notoriety lay in her effects on writing, influence on literature, writers, readers and contributions to the Harlem Renaissance. Because of Hurstons great effects on writing, she became one of the most influential writes of during the Harlem Renaissance. In 1925, she started her writing career in New York City, during the Harlem Renaissance, with only one dollar and fifty cents. Hurston hit her stride in the mid-1930s producing five books, drama, stories, and essays. Her acknowledge masterpiece Their Eyes were Watching God in 1937. The novel revealed its roots in the black folk of Eatonville, but her writings grew increasingly personal, and she based the main characters on her parents. She wrote about a Southern black womans search, over 25 years and 3 marriages, for her true identity and a community in which she can develop that identity. Hurstons work was not political, but her characters use of dialect, her manner of portraying black culture, and her conservatism created controversy within the black community. Throughout her career she addressed issues of race and gender, often relating them to the search for freedom. With the help of her writings, their effects on the world Hurston became a unique artist and scientist. Hurston became perhaps the most prolific and well-k...

The Six Spellings of Long E

The Six Spellings of Long E The Six Spellings of Long E The Six Spellings of Long E By Maeve Maddox Some of you have had the opportunity to attend, but we wanted our members to have a sneak peak at what they have to offer. The above quotation is from a club announcement. The words sneak peak certainly seem as if they ought to match, but the word peak is a misspelling in this context. The word meaning a surreptitious look is spelled peek. A peak is a projecting point. As I pointed out in English Spelling is Not Total Chaos, English has more phonograms (sound symbols) than it needs. This multiplicity of spellings applies especially to the vowel sounds. Long E is the vowel sound represented by the e in me. This long e sound can also be represented by five other phonograms: ee Achilles was wounded in his heel. The double e spelling ee always represents the long e sound: see, kneel, feel, tee (golf term). ea Physician, heal thyself. Long e is the most common sound represented by ea: read, zeal, appeal, deal, meal, real. (The spelling ea can also represent two other vowel sounds.) ei That man is filled with conceit. This ei spelling for long e occurs in words in which the ei follows the letter c: ceiling, conceit, perceive, receipt, receive. (Theres a rule that often helps: i before e except after c) ie Lets plant oats in that field. Long e is spelled ie in several common words: believe, belief, brief, chief, field, niece, priest, siege, achieve, piece. ey Follett wrote The Key to Rebecca. The ey spelling for long e is not common in one-syllable words. Key is the only one I can think of. The phonogram ey to represent long e does appear at the end of two-syllable words like valley, alley, and galley. (The spelling ey more often represents the long a sound, as in they.) Its too bad that we have so many ways to spell the long e sound, but its probably too late to do anything about itother than learn the variants. Even Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), an early advocate of English spelling reform, had to concede that No set of rules can cover all points; some things must be left to observation and daily practice.* *Baugh, A History of the English Language p. 255) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:85 Synonyms for â€Å"Help†10 Types of TransitionsGlimpse and Glance: Same or Different?

Fashion and consumer culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Fashion and consumer culture - Essay Example The essay "Fashion and consumer culture" discusses the role of consumer goods and services. According to the domain of social psychology, fashion products represent symbolic attributes that speak volumes about an individual’s position in life in regards to income, trend-consciousness, and social group membership. It is the symbolism projected by fashion attire that largely dictates the level to which an individual moulds their lifestyle against social group affiliation needs. On the other hand, the question as to whether fashion is a symbolic methodology to ensure a degree of individualism is raised. Symbolic purchases represent a status representation reflecting socio-economic background or peer group affiliation, thus theoretically it is the social environment that determines fashion consumption. Is fashion consumption solely based on social attachment or is fashion a break from pre-established social norms to project individual innovation and creativity as the dominant reas on for consumption? However, research identifies that fashion consumption is more closely related to social affiliation, an assumption based on characteristics in the real-world fashion marketplace that point toward the psychological mechanisms of social group identity. Based on differing viewpoints, the question is raised as to whether fashion consumption is solely individualistic or based on social factors that influence buying behaviours. This paper explores how either individualism or social factors influence social lives.

Critical Analysis of Current Management or Leadership Book Research Paper

Critical Analysis of Current Management or Leadership Book - Research Paper Example It imparts into the managers the skills that are vital for present management as well as in the future. Managers are informed on better strategies that are necessary for solving problems. The new strategies were previously hidden from them. The theoretical proposals of the book when applied in management can help enhance the performance of various organizations. The first part of the book talks about business performance. Drucker says although there is no known genuine business theory and no integrated business strategy is in existence, people know about business and its key functions (Peter, 1999). In deed no standard management strategy exists. The practical implication of this fact is for the managers to design the strategy that will most suit the needs of their organizations. Different organizations have different management strategies and this explains the diversity in the performances of organizations. This fact coincides with what happens in reality. Managers should set balanc ed objectives in the key areas of production in line with the current prevailing factors and those of the future. Owing to the fact that businesses have certain set goals, the managers must lay down clear strategies that will help steer their business to achieving those goals. Applying the strategies proposed in the book puts the managers at a better position to improve their organizations. They must learn how to mobilize the necessary resources required in realizing the objectives of their businesses. When strategizing, managers should also put into consideration how the decisions will impact on the performance of the business in the future. When fully adhered to, the business performance proposals can be of great help in management of organizations. The book talks about dimensions of management. Organizations, both business enterprises and public institutions exist for a purpose. There are three major roles of management in an organization. The managers must ensure that these role s of management are achieved. The first role is to think through and define the specific reason for existence and mission of the institution, whether hospital, business enterprise or university. If the organization is a business enterprise, its reason for existence would be to make profit and expand its scale of operation. The second purpose is to ensure productivity and the employees achieving. The last role is to manage social impacts and responsibilities. Todays organizations’ success is based on these three pillars. Managers should know the purpose of an organization. Once they are fully in terms with the mission and purpose of an organization, they can set policies and strategies that can enhance the productivity and efficiency that aim at achieving the set goals. The strategies formulated should conform to the objectives to be achieved. Time dimension, as proposed in the book, affects management of businesses and institutions. This coincides with the real situation in m ost organizations today. In making decisions, managers should put into considerations the time factor. For a productive organization, every decision made and objectives set must be time bound. The managers must live at present and also in the future. The future goals of an organization can only be achieved from the present as they represent the continuity of the organization. Management of various organization when planning include the future in the decision

The Basis of Sex Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Basis of Sex Education - Essay Example What is important here is how well the politicians and celebrities keep their profiles in an easily identifiable manner and what they are doing to make sure that their acts are given the proper leverage that they would like to receive at the hands of the common man and woman on the street. The debate has more feet than one can think of. This is because the people at the helm of affairs within the imparting of sex education have not been able to decipher the true representation and depiction of this form of knowledge which the children of present times should have for their respective personal careers. This would keep them aware of how others can take undue advantage of them and what they must do to make sure that the negativities remain at a fair enough distance from them. This debate has weight because the role played by the politicians and celebrities is not a good one since they are indulging in acts of a sexual nature, which would in return mean that the teenagers would not mind getting into the same as well. There has to be a dis-associative feeling attached with such a notion in order to bring the debate under wraps and to find a solution in the end. There is a great amount of evidence available which suggests that sex education should be kept at a safe distance from the shores of the schools and colleges, which is indeed a much debatable aspect of the subject at hand. This is because sex education domains have only helped the students to grow and develop as a whole. It has asked for their continuous improvement in terms of mental levels and understanding of sensitive issues which they might know come across if they were not subjected to education ranging from a sexual nature. The sex education realms are therefore very closely attached with how well the celebrities and politicians manage their respective selves. If they do not concentrate on hiding their respective sexual acts and involve within such acts, it would mean there are problems of a magnanimou s nature and the sex education debates would continue to exist in the coming times as well.     Ã‚  

Global Marketing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Global Marketing - Case Study Example 2.2 Economic Factors 6 2.3 Social Factors 6 2.4 Technological Factors 7 2.5 Environmental Factors 8 2.6 Legal Factors 9 3.0 Risk Analysis of China 10 4.0 Risk Analysis Commentary 14 5.0 Recommendations 15 Appendix 17 Works Cited 18 1.0 Introduction The economic reforms adopted by China in 70s and 80s certainly succeeded in changing the global perception about China. It was only owing to these reforms that the sectors devoid of state interference exhibited a marked growth. The opening up of the Chinese economy definitely made way for foreign investment and trade. However, the momentum of reforms in China though steady has been more or less cautious and slow. Ushering in of the reforms led to a minimal yet conclusive delegation of...The Chinese GDP stood at $ 3.42 trillion in the year 2007 (McGregor 2007). Credible experts and institutions expect the Chinese economy to become the world's largest economy by the end of 21st century. However, the development in China exhibits gross income disparities, a trend bolstered by the ensuing liberalization of the domestic markets. Not to mention that an undemocratic political setup has multifarious ramifications those have a direct detrimental impact on the economy. With the fruits of pros perity appropriated by urban centres and politically elite, the human resource development in China has been non-uniform and slow (Plafker 2008). The Western corporations attuned to much liberal and open system do tend to be positive yet apprehensive about venturing into the Chinese climes. The economic reforms adopted by China in 70s and 80s certainly succeeded in changing the global perception about China. It was only owing to these reforms that the sectors devoid of state interference exhibited a marked growth. The opening up of the Chinese economy definitely made way for foreign investment and trade. However, the momentum of reforms in China though steady has been more or less cautious and slow. Ushering in of the reforms led to a minimal yet conclusive delegation of power and responsibility to the local players (Hexter 2007).

The Temple of Olympian Zeus Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Temple of Olympian Zeus - Article Example The Temple of Olympian Zeus is a testament to the flourishing effects of classical humanities on our modern culture. The Temple of Olympian Zeus displays classical, as well as Hellenistic, culture. In terms of humanities, Philosophy & Literature of the western culture deal with Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece & Rome. The architecture of the Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens, Greece) reflects the values and aesthetics of the culture that created it. In terms of the philosophical aspect of classical humanities, the study includes the concept of the antiquities. The classical era dates from 600 BC to 600 AD. The classical culture is described as the group which included a majority of the highest class of citizens. The humanities study focused on the â€Å"Philo’s Rule† (strike the divine coin again). Classical Philosophy includes the intellectual, as well as aesthetic, admiration of the best around the world. Specifically, the temple is made from Doric style limestone cre ations. The remaining shreds of evidence of the hugeness of the Zeus which focused on the temple are the towering columns. The towering columns still remain today as testimony to the unforgettable influence of the Classical architecture on the prior Greek society. Aristotle mentioned that the Classical Period included the king’s forcible use of the citizens to build the Temple of Olympian Zeus. The people’s focus on creating the architectural masterpiece kept them busy. Being occupied with the temple construction, citizens did not have time to stage rallies and attacks on the king during the classical period. In terms of the literary aspect of classical humanities, Edward Coplestone emphasized that Classical literature centers on learning, which includes the sending of data to the human mind. Classical literature persuades the current generation is encouraged to emulate the best of the classical period. The human being must prioritize a high sense of honor. Likewise, t he classical person enjoined to refute death for good reason. Lastly, classical literature empowers the average person to devote one’s life to the welfare of the Greek community. During the latter part of the temple’s construction, some of the columns were made from the prior low-quality building materials to the premium quality Pentelic marble. In addition, the later columns were made using the Corinthian architecture style. The new style replaced the prior Doric architectural designs. The architectural design includes several towering columns that resemble those supporting the Parthenon. The Parthenon is located in Athens, Greece as well. Likewise, the Parthenon was constructed during the Classical humanities period, 488 B.C. to 480 B.C. Both the Parthenon and the Temple of Olympian Zeus included the construction architectural column types (small and big cella architectural types). During the Classical humanities period, the architectures prioritized the competitive creation of grand, beautiful, and technically ingenious works of architectural art. On the side of the Parthenon, the architectural foundation of the temple was made out of the limestone and marble.

Global Marketing Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Global Marketing - Case Study Example 2.2 Economic Factors 6 2.3 Social Factors 6 2.4 Technological Factors 7 2.5 Environmental Factors 8 2.6 Legal Factors 9 3.0 Risk Analysis of China 10 4.0 Risk Analysis Commentary 14 5.0 Recommendations 15 Appendix 17 Works Cited 18 1.0 Introduction The economic reforms adopted by China in 70s and 80s certainly succeeded in changing the global perception about China. It was only owing to these reforms that the sectors devoid of state interference exhibited a marked growth. The opening up of the Chinese economy definitely made way for foreign investment and trade. However, the momentum of reforms in China though steady has been more or less cautious and slow. Ushering in of the reforms led to a minimal yet conclusive delegation of...The Chinese GDP stood at $ 3.42 trillion in the year 2007 (McGregor 2007). Credible experts and institutions expect the Chinese economy to become the world's largest economy by the end of 21st century. However, the development in China exhibits gross income disparities, a trend bolstered by the ensuing liberalization of the domestic markets. Not to mention that an undemocratic political setup has multifarious ramifications those have a direct detrimental impact on the economy. With the fruits of pros perity appropriated by urban centres and politically elite, the human resource development in China has been non-uniform and slow (Plafker 2008). The Western corporations attuned to much liberal and open system do tend to be positive yet apprehensive about venturing into the Chinese climes. The economic reforms adopted by China in 70s and 80s certainly succeeded in changing the global perception about China. It was only owing to these reforms that the sectors devoid of state interference exhibited a marked growth. The opening up of the Chinese economy definitely made way for foreign investment and trade. However, the momentum of reforms in China though steady has been more or less cautious and slow. Ushering in of the reforms led to a minimal yet conclusive delegation of power and responsibility to the local players (Hexter 2007).

A New Begining Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

A New Begining - Research Paper Example A group of 10 is a good sized group and will be able to be managed within a short amount of time. We will have the initial screening through doctors, but we will also provide a short questionnaire for anyone who is interested in the group. The questionnaire will ask about their attitude towards weight loss, what they have tried in the past, how often they have tried to lose weight, and what results they had in the past. The questionnaire will also ask screening questions that will pertain to whether an individual has problems with eating disorders. In order for someone to be successful in weight loss, they will need to make a variety of changes with not only their eating habits but with their mental ideas about food. In order to lose weight, they may need to undergo a complete change in their lifestyle. This is one of the reason why it will be important to define those people who actually have a mindset that will promote their moving forward. Each person in the group will also need t o go through one individual therapy session with one of the group members. This will create a psychological profile for each person so that we know what we are dealing with when people come into the group. According to Berg, Landreth and Fall (2006) we should screen participants so that the members of the group have similar goals and needs for weight loss, and they would be people who would not stop the progress of the group. When thinking about this criteria, we would want to make sure that the members of the group were mentally healthy (they do not have psychological disorders that would stop the progress of the group), and who were at a similar level of needing to loose weight. In other words, we would like to have people in the group who are serious about weight loss and who will do what is required. Some of this would be done in the prescreening which would include an interview with each individual who was interested in the group, the questionnaire, and a conversation with thei r doctor (with a written permission from the person wanting to join the group). Since Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) is supposed to be brief therapy, we will limit the group to 12 sessions of 45 minutes each and we will meet at the treatment center. Rationale for CBT CBT has been used to assist many people in stopping smoking, turning away from alcohol and drugs, as well as stopping many mood disorders. Using CBT for weight loss is relatively new, according to St. Clair (n.d.). Losing weight involves not only a physical change, but individuals must also change their thinking. CBT is able to help them make new decisions about the way they look, about weight loss in general and they learn to think thin (St. Clair, n.d.). Arhart-Treichel (2007) reports on a study done by the Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research in which ten women were a part of a weight loss group. The results of the study showed that the women lost a pound a month to a pound a week and were able to keep it off. A Swedish randomized clinical trial done in 2005 studied 62 obese people who lost an average of 17 pounds after the 10 weeks program and another five pounds by the follow-up date 18 months later (Arhart-Treichel, 2007). Clearly, CBT is slowly showing an effective way

Creative Writing Essay Example for Free

Creative Writing Essay Muscles and staring blue eyes looked back at the Eliot zombie. Ellie screamed. Then fell to the floor. Eliot then started to rip up her face. He put it to his mouth and started chewing it. Back in the tunnel the group was getting bored. Ive had enough of this, said Harry, Im going to go and look for some food, anyone coming? Ill go, replied Beth, Im getting quite hungry myself. The pair walked out the tunnel and went right. There has to be some food round here, Harry said optimistically. Whats that? Beth said confused. On the horizon they saw a sort of shack. It looked like a bomb shelter. Harry and Beth ran to the building. They opened that door. It swung open with a creak. In front of them were some barrels at the back, some shelves on the side with some boxes on, and a trap door in the centre of the room. Have a look on them shelves, maybe there is some food in them boxes, Harry said bossily. The duo searched the shelves in search of food. Beth screamed. There was a spider. I hate spiders. Beth turned a shade of red. Harry found a flashlight. Come on, theres no food in here. Lets have a look under that trapdoor. Harry said, starting to get agitated by the lack of food. He pulled the door up above his head. A rusty staircase stood below them. They got to the bottom of the stairs. Harry turned on the flashlight. The torchlight showed stalactites hanging from the roof like the dead bodies of criminals that had been hung centurys ago, there was a pool of water at the back of the cave. Huge cobwebs went up the sides of the cave. Bones were scattered on the ground. Beth and Harry could hear scuttling behind them, they turned around. There was nothing there. Then something gooey dropped on Beths shoulder. They looked up and saw a twenty five foot spider looking down at them with its eight eyes. Beth screamed. The spider raised its abdomen and shot a sticky string at her. She tried to run but the web stopped her. Beths body was wrapped up in a silk tomb. Harry could still hear her screaming. HELP! The spider came down from its web. It stabbed its sting into her back, injecting her with a nerve poison. Beth screamed louder than before. Her body began to shake. She fell to the ground. The spider then dragged her body back up to its web. Harry could still hear faint screaming. Then it stopped. Her body was, twitching like someone who has just drank five cups of coffee. Harry ran backwards, but he tripped over a bone. Looking into the darkness, He heard a buzzing. A giant bug flew out and It grabbed him with two of its six hue legs, its large, bulbous eyes stared at him. The buzzing from its wings almost deafened him. It took him up to its nest. It pinned him down and spayed a liquid into his face. His face started to burn. His eyes started to melt. Harry started screaming. Giant maggots came out of the nest. They hadnt eaten in years. They bit into Harry. They ripped his body limb from limb. The maggots then ate the rest of his body while the bug flew back into the darkness. Waiting for the next unsuspecting victim to wander into is trap. Guy, Lorna and Laura were waiting in the other tunnel. They were starting to get hungry. Look over there, said Lorna, there is a light, maybe there is some food. The group moved down the tunnel. When the group got to the light hundreds maybe thousands of zombies were stumbling about in front of them. Laura screamed. The noise had attracted the zombies attention. Right you two, get out. Ill run down there and maybe the zombies will follow me. Said Lorna, bravely, Good luck. Thanks Lorna, said the pair. She ran off making loads of noise and waving her arms about. The zombies followed her down another tunnel. Come on, lets get out. Guy noticed an opening in the roof. Up there; an escape Guy said quickly. Guy and Laura heard a scream from down the tunnel. The zombies had caught up with Lorna. The pair ran up some ladders up to a metal platform. Quick move. Laura you first. Laura had gotten through the hole in the ceiling when a zombie came up behind guy and grabbed him. It pulled him to the ground. NO! GUY! screamed Laura. QUICK! SAVE YOURS Guy was cut off. The zombie ripped open his torso. Laura could see all of Guys internal organs. His heart was still beating slowly. Guy screamed. Then stopped moving. The zombie plunged his hand into Guys corpse like a policeman dunking a jam doughnut into a hot cup of coffee. He got a hand full of Guys intestines and brought it to its rotten mouth. It sunk its teeth into the organs. Blood dropped onto is ripped, stained shirt. No! Laura wept. She crawled out of the hole and stood on top of the mountain. She stopped and thought of all of her friends, Eliot, Lorna, Guy, Beth, Harry, Ellie, Sam and Nadim. Tears streamed down her face and dripped onto the sandy floor, making a small puddle. Suddenly a pair of blood stained hands burst out. They latched on to her foot. Holding on as tight as it could. Laura yelled. The zombie pulled Laura back towards the hole she crawled through. She dropped back through the floor. She could see guys body. He was pale. Laura was screaming. The zombies that were distracted had come back. Laura could see familiar faces in the crowd of death. Eliot, Lorna, Ellie and Nadim were lurching towards her. She looked back over to Guy. His body started to move. He stood up. His liver and stomach fell from his body and splattered on the ground. His ribcage swung back and forth like saloon doors in a gale. Laura jumped down from the platform. Come on! Youre going to have me, so have me! Laura shouted. She ran into the middle of the crowd yelling. A scream echoed through the cave. Then it all went quiet. Nothing could be heard apart from the groaning of the dead. By James Haselden 10T1 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Miscellaneous section.

N-myristoylation: An Overview

N-myristoylation: An Overview N-myristoylation Protein N-myristoylation is the covalent attachment of myristate, a 14-carbon fatty acid, onto the N-terminal glycine residues of protein substrates. It is transferred co- or post-translationally to a subset of proteins from a thioester form, myristoyl-CoA, catalyzed by N-myristoyl transferases (NMTs). (insert genes expressing nmt1 and nmt2, NMT recognizes a general consensus sequence for myristoylation (Gly-X-X-X-(Ser/Thr/Cys)) containing a N-terminal glycine, 3 other amino acids and a serine, threonine or a cysteine in the fifth position.) While this process is often observed co-translationally on nascent shorter protein substrates, post-translation myristoylation ensues during apoptosis on N-terminal glycine residue exposed after caspase cleavage of protein substrates.1 An increase in proteins hydrophobicity conferred by this modification allows for weak protein-lipid and protein-protein interactions, as well as for membrane targeting and function of proteins involved in signal tr ansduction cascades.2 NMTs served as therapeutic targets owing to their importance for the survival of human pathogens and their association with carcinogenesis.1 To globally profile NMT protein substrates, chemical proteomic approaches have been employed where small tags on fatty acids such as an alkyne (YnMyr) or azide (AzMyr) (Fig. X) were developed to probe myristoylated proteins via metabolic labeling.3,4 This probe was successfully used in a high-confidence profiling of the co-translational myristoylome in human and zebra fish.5 Although YnMyr remains to be the probe of choice owing to its minimal background labeling6, it was demonstrated to label proteins with other known lipid-modifications such as NÃŽÂ µ-myristoyl,7 S-palmitoyl8 and GPI-anchors9-compromising its specificity towards labeling of N-terminal myristoylated proteins. To circumvent the challenge of identifying the true NMT substrates, Tate et al. used an integrated chemical biology approach where selective inhibition of NMT with smal l-molecule inhibitors combined with YnMyr labeling and quantitative proteomics allowed for profiling of more than 30 known and novel protein candidates for N-myristoylation in blood-stage malaria parasite.9 (describe that the presence of inhibitor abolished the labeling of the true substrates, which should not be enriched in control samples) This technology was also applied to globally profile the N-myristoylome of other human pathogens such as in  Leishmania donovani,10 Trypanosoma brucei,11and recently Trypanosoma cruzi.12Theprofiling of a large set of N-myristoylated proteins with diverse cellular functions unravels the significance of this lipid modification in these parasites. Furthermore, this also validates NMT as a viable drug target in attenuating the virulence of these pathogens. Extending the same approach to HeLa cancer cells enabled the identification of more than 100 of both co- and post-translationally modified N-myristoylated proteins, majority of which were identi fied at endogenous levels for the first time.13 Indeed, this robust technique proved to be powerful in discriminating on-target proteins from off-targets in a proteome-wide analysis, resulting in the discovery of novel NMT protein substrates at high confidence. Although promising, the method described where NMT inhibitors were used may not be applicable to more complex systems where cell viability may be compromised, e.g. in the context of viral and bacterial infection. An alternative targeted approach tosimplify data analysis of enriched proteins employs isolating those that bear the N-terminal glycine requirement for N-myristoylation. This enabled the profiling of downregulated host N-myristoylated proteins upon infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV)14, as well as novel fatty-acylated proteins encoded by HSV. This same approach provided a more defined picture of the demyristoylating function of the bacterial effector IpaJ upon host cell invasion of Shigella flexneri, which was determined to contribute to its virulence.15   Palmitoylation Proteins S-palmitoylation is the attachment of a 16-carbon long fatty acid (as palmitate-CoA) to cysteine residues, which was first discovered by radiolabeling of virus-infected cells with [3H]palmitate.16 The formation of the thioester linkage is mediated by a family of protein acyl transferases (PATs) that bear a conserved Asp-His -His-Cys catalytic motif (DHHC-PATs), which can be removed by hydrolysis aided by acyl protein thioesterases (APTs).17 Owing to the reversibility of this modification, S-palmitoylation of proteins was thought to be dynamically regulated ,whereby a subset of proteins are transiently palmitoylated in a certain time point/cellular activity. (insert something) S-palmitoylation has been demonstrated to be an essential mechanism for protein stability, activity, and proper cellular localization.18 Recent advances in identifying palmitoylated proteins revealed not only its key role in regulatory mechanisms but as well as in host invasion and virulence of pathogen s. Large-scale proteomic profiling of S-palmitoylated proteins using metabolic labeling has been heavily dependent on employing the alkyne analogue of palmitic acid, 17-ODYA (Fig. X). This commercially available chemical reporter is suitable for these analyses as it has shown better specificity and has minimal background in labeling proteins that are ought to be acylated by shorter fatty alkyl chains.6 The subsequent click reaction with fluorophore- or biotin-azide then allows for in-gel fluorescence monitoring and biotin-pulldown strategy prior to LC-MS proteomic analysis of labeled proteins, respectively. In these studies, hundreds of palmitoylated proteins were identified with a wide range of functions, highlighting the importance of S-palmitoylation in a plethora of cellular mechanisms and pathways. For instance, the first report on using such strategy applied to mammalian cells identified around 125 candidate S-palmitoylated proteins at high confidence, including G proteins, recept ors and uncharacterized hydrolases.19 Using the same strategy in dendritic immune cells (DC2.4) identified more than 150 predicted S-palmitoylated proteins and revealed that palmitoylation of interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3)20 and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)21 is essential for their antiviral activity. A more recent study on Cryptococcus neoformans revealed that a single PAT, Pfa4, palmitoylates the fungal proteins required for parasite integrity and virulence-palmitoylating 72 proteins identified in a global-scale approach.22 A more quantitative approach to measure levels of palmitoylated proteins combines metabolic labeling with 17-ODYA and Stable Isotope Labeling with amino acids in Cultured Cells (SILAC). In virus-infected RPE-1 epithelial cells, selective repression was observed for host S-palmitoylated proteins, including interferon signaling regulators and members of the tetraspanin family.14 A novel set of HSV-encoded proteins palmitoylated by the host machinery were selectively and significantly identified, further suggesting that HSV exploits the palmitoylation pathway which contributes to its virulence. As palmitoylation is a reversible process, the dynamic cycling of palmitoylated proteins in mouse T-cell hybridoma cells was investigated using this quantitative approach in combination with a pulse-chase technique.23 Through the use of a serine lipase-inhibitor as the chase, palmitoylated proteins that undergo fast turnovers were distinguished from those that are stably modified. This indicates that a subset of this dynamic palmitoylation event is regulated by serine hydrolases, validating the fundamental regulatory mechanism of depalmitoylation for proteins with rapid turnovers. It is important to note that in this study, only the insoluble protein fractions were analyzed, as the soluble proteins were not amenable to metabolic probe incorporation.19 Given the dynamic nature of palmitoylation, the metabolic labeling strategy would allow labeling of only those that are palmitoylated at the time of probe treatment and were stably modified. An older approach, coined as acyl-biotin exchange (ABE), has the potential to capture the full complement of palmitoylated proteins. In this multistep procedure, the protein lysates are treated with hydroxylamine to selectively cleave the thioester bonds, followed by disulfide capture with thiol-containing biotin analogue, and subsequently enriched through a pulldown technique prior to LC-MS analysis. ABE was first utilized in tandem with semi-quantitative MudPit analysis on profiling the palmitome of Saccharomyces cerivisae.24 The 12 known and 35 new palmitoylated proteins identified presented the first evidence on the diverse specificities of PATs. The ABE method was further employed in profiling the palmitoylome in rat neurons,25 human T cells,26 and recently in poplar tree cells,27 establishi ng its applicability to a wide range of biological systems. Both ABE and metabolic labeling approaches combined with SILAC revealed their large complementarity in profiling S-palmitoylated proteins in Plasmodium falciparum.28 A total of more than 400 palmitoylated proteins were identified where 202 proteins were enriched in both methods. As expected, metabolic labeling identified a lesser number of proteins, reflecting the less complexity in this approach. A pulse-chase labeling using ABE in a quantitative approach with 2-BMP as the parasite PAT inhibitor revealed the identification of a range of stably and dynamically palmitoylated proteins. Indeed, this study demonstrated the importance of palmitoylation in multiple parasite-specific processes, specifically in drug resistance, asexual stage development, host cell invasion, and protein export. Both methods were also employed in investigating the dysregulation of palmitoylation in breast cancer cells by inducing Snail-overexpression- an event correlated with chemoresistance and metastasis.29 Results showed that some proteins were differentially expressed regardless of differential palmitoylation. Thus, Snail-overexpression compromises the dynamic palmitoylation of some proteins that may be involved in pathways that contribute to malignancy. Albeit most proteins are S -palmitoylated in their cysteine residues, others were reported to be O-palmitoylated30 and N-palmitoylated17, which are also labeled by 17-ODYA. To distinguish S-palmitoylated proteins from these other forms in Toxoplasma gondii, a method similar to ABE was employed which also takes advantage of the labilityof thioester bonds to hydrolysis.31 In this approach, the metabolic incorporation of 17-ODYA and enrichment is followed by hydroxylamine cleavage to profile S-palmitoylated proteins. This confirmed 282 hydroxylamine-sensitive proteins from 501 putative palmitoylated proteins enriched from the initial 17-ODYA labeling. This also revealed and validated that palmitoylation of AMA1, a protein essential for host-cell invasion, is not required on invasion but increases microneme secretion. Taken together, these studies presented underscore the utility of large-scale S-palmitome profiling in understanding the biological importance of this lipid modification. Applying these techniques to future palmitome analysis would further discover potentially novel protein functions and cellular mechanisms across different biological systems. Wright, M. H., Heal, W. P., Mann, D. J. Tate, E. W. Protein myristoylation in health and disease. J. Chem. Biol. 3, 19-35 (2010). Farazi, T. A., Waksman, G. Gordon, J. I. The Biology and Enzymology of ProteinN-Myristoylation . J. Biol. Chem. 276 , 39501-39504 (2001). Heal, W. P., Wickramasinghe, S. R., Leatherbarrow, R. J. Tate, E. W. N-Myristoyl transferase-mediated protein labellingin vivo. Org. Biomol. Chem. 6, 2308-2315 (2008). Heal, W. P., Wright, M. H., Thinon, E. Tate, E. W. Multifunctional protein labeling via enzymatic N-terminal tagging and elaboration by click chemistry. Nat. Protoc. 7,105-117 (2012). Broncel, M. et al. Myristoylation profiling in human cells and zebrafish. Data Br. 4, 379-383 (2015). Charron, G. et al. Robust Fluorescent Detection of Protein Fatty-Acylation with Chemical Reporters. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 4967-4975 (2009). Liu, Z. et al. Integrative Chemical Biology Approaches for Identification and Characterization of Erasers for Fatty-Acid-Acylated Lysine Residues within Proteins. Angew. Chemie Int. Ed. 54, 1149-1152 (2015). Wilson, J. P., Raghavan, A. S., Yang, Y.-Y., Charron, G. Hang, H. C. Proteomic Analysis of Fatty-acylated Proteins in Mammalian Cells with Chemical Reporters Reveals S-Acylation of Histone H3 Variants. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 10, M110.001198 (2011). Wright, M. H. et al. Validation of N-myristoyltransferase as an antimalarial drug target using an integrated chemical biology approach. Nat Chem 6, 112-121 (2014). Wright, M. H. et al. Global Analysis of Protein N-Myristoylation and Exploration of N-Myristoyltransferase as a Drug Target in the Neglected Human Pathogen Leishmania donovani. Chem. Biol. 22, 342-354 (2015). Wright, M. H., Paape, D., Price, H. P., Smith, D. F. Tate, E. W. Global Profiling and Inhibition of Protein Lipidation in Vector and Host Stages of the Sleeping Sickness Parasite Trypanosoma brucei. ACS Infect. Dis. 2, 427-441 (2016). Roberts, A. J. Fairlamb, A. H. The N-myristoylome of Trypanosoma cruzi. Sci. Rep. 6,31078 (2016). Thinon, E. et al. Global profiling of co- and post-translationally N-myristoylated proteomes in human cells. Nat Commun 5, (2014). Serwa, R. A., Abaitua, F., Krause, E., Tate, E. W. OHare, P. Systems Analysis of Protein Fatty Acylation in Herpes Simplex Virus-Infected Cells Using Chemical Proteomics. Chem. Biol. 22, 1008-1017 (2015). Burnaevskiy, N., Peng, T., Reddick, L. E., Hang, H. C. Alto, N. M. Myristoylome profiling reveals a concerted mechanism of ARF GTPase deacylation by the bacterial protease IpaJ. Mol. Cell 58, 110-122 (2015). Schmidt, M. F. G. Schlesinger, M. J. Fatty acid binding to vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein: a new type of post-translational modification of the viral glycoprotein. Cell 17, 813-819 (1979). Linder, M. E. Deschenes, R. J. Palmitoylation: policing protein stability and traffic. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 8, 74-84 (2007). Smotrys, J. E. Linder, M. E. Palmitoylation of Intracellular Signaling Proteins: Regulation and Function. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 73, 559-587 (2004). Martin, B. R. Cravatt, B. F. Large-scale profiling of protein palmitoylation in mammalian cells. Nat Meth 6, 135-138 (2009). Yount, J. S. et al. Palmitoylome profiling reveals S-palmitoylation-dependent antiviral activity of IFITM3. Nat Chem Biol 6, 610-614 (2010). Chesarino, N. M. et al. Chemoproteomics reveals Toll-like receptor fatty acylation. BMC Biol. 12,91 (2014). Santiago-Tirado, F. H., Peng, T., Yang, M., Hang, H. C. Doering, T. L. A Single Protein S-acyl Transferase Acts through Diverse Substrates to Determine Cryptococcal Morphology, Stress Tolerance, and Pathogenic Outcome. PLoS Pathog. 11,e1004908 (2015). Martin, B. R., Wang, C., Adibekian, A., Tully, S. E. Cravatt, B. F. Global profiling of dynamic protein palmitoylation. Nat Meth 9, 84-89 (2012). Roth, A. F. et al. Global Analysis of Protein Palmitoylation in Yeast. Cell 125, 1003- 1013 (2006). Kang, R. et al. Neural palmitoyl-proteomics reveals dynamic synaptic palmitoylation. Nature 456, 904-909 (2008). Morrison, E. et al. Quantitative analysis of the human T cell palmitome. Sci. Rep. 5, 11598 (2015). Srivastava, V., Weber, J. R., Malm, E., Fouke, B. W. Bulone, V. Proteomic Analysis of a Poplar Cell Suspension Culture Suggests a Major Role of Protein S-Acylation in Diverse Cellular Processes. Front. Plant Sci. 7, 477 (2016). Jones, M. L., Collins, M. O., Goulding, D., Choudhary, J. S. Rayner, J. C. Analysis of Protein Palmitoylation Reveals a Pervasive Role in Plasmodium Development and Pathogenesis. Cell Host Microbe 12, 246-258 (2012). Hernandez, J. L. et al. Correlated S-palmitoylation profiling of Snail-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Mol. Biosyst. 12, 1799-1808 (2016). Zou, C. et al. Acyl-CoA:Lysophosphatidylcholine Acyltransferase I (Lpcat1) Catalyzes Histone Protein O-Palmitoylation to Regulate mRNA Synthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 286 ,28019-28025 (2011). Foe, I. T. et al. Global analysis of palmitoylated proteins in Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Host Microbe 18,501-511 (2015).

Hipaa Privacy Rule :: Healthcare Medical Information Privacy

1. Introduction Today, you have more reason than ever to care about the privacy of your medical information. This information was once stored in locked file cabinets and on dusty shelves in the medical records department. Your doctor(s) used to be the sole keeper of your physical and mental health information. With today's usage of electronic medical records software, information discussed in confidence with your doctor(s) will be recorded into electronic data files. The obvious concern - the potential for your records to be seen by hundreds of strangers who work in health care, the insurance industry, and a host of businesses associated with medical organizations. Fortunately, this catastrohic scenario will likely be avoided. Congress addressed growing public concern about privacy and security of personal health data, and in 1996 passed â€Å"The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act† (HIPAA). HIPAA sets the national standard for electronic transfers of health data. Before HIPAA, each state set their own standards. Now states must abide by the minimum standards set by HIPAA. States can enact laws to incorporate and/or strengthen the basic rights given by HIPAA. How HIPAA's Privacy Rule Protects YOU; The Patient Access to your own medical records Prior to HIPAA, access to YOUR medical records were not guaranteed by federal law. Only about half the states had laws giving patients the right to see and copy their own medical records. You may be charged for copies but HIPAA sets fee limits. You Must Be Given Notice Of Privacy Practices How your medical information is used and disclosed must now be given to you. The notice must also tell you how to exercise your rights and how to file a complaint with your health care provider and with the DHHS Office of Civil Rights. HIPAA Requires Accounting of Disclosure Details You have the right to know who has accessed your health records for the prior six years, However there are several exceptions to the accounting requirement. Accounting is not required when records are disclosed to persons who see your records for treatment, payment, and health care operations. These individuals do not need to be listed in the disclosure log. Filing A Complaint If you believe a health care provider or health plan has violated your privacy you have the right to file a complaint with your health care provider and with DHHS. Special Requests For Confidential Communications. You can make special requests specifying how you would like your doctor's office handle confidential communication.

Era of Good Feelings

Historians have traditionally labeled the period after the War of 1812 the â€Å"Era of Good Feelings. † Evaluate the accuracy of this label, considering the emergence of nationalism and sectionalism. The period of time labeled as the â€Å"Era of Good Feelings,† was a prosperous, but shortened period for America in which political strife had come to a halt and disputes had settled. The high morale after the war caused this era to be granted such a name. With James Monroe in presidency, and the country in peace, the issues of nationalism and sectionalism had been put on hold.Only for a short period of time would these issues diminish, and America would bounce back to its normal imbalances. James Monroe had a large impact on the length of time that this era had been sustained, although the tranquility could not be held forever. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Progressive Era reformers and the federal government in bringing about reform at a national level. In your answ er be sure to analyze the successes and limitations of these efforts in the period 1900 – 1920. The Progressive Era reformers and the federal government had a great impact on reform at the national level.Through Progressivism movements and the determination of these leaders, America would not be as technologically, socially, and politically advanced as we are today. The support that these reformers were given from the people had been a key factor in the success of their trials and tribulations. These people are the main reasons for which America has prospered. In bringing progressivism to a national level, they had succeeded. If they had not, would our world be what it is today? Analyze the responses of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration to the problems of the Great Depression.How effective were these responses? How did they change the role of the federal government? The responses of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration to the problems of the Great Depress ion had been prompt and well thought out upon the occasion. These responses had effectively brought America back into a prosperous country. He was able to restore the country and change society for the sexes and the races. His involvement in the Great Depression, made F. D. R. prepared and focused to drive America in the right direction.

Fast food persuasive essay Essay

Imagine a world full of fast food restaurants. No more needs for salad, just hamburgers and fries. We aren’t at this point but we are going there with the fact that the amount of fast food restaurants went up with 300% the past few years. The amount of obese children has gone up, unlike their life span which is going down with every visit to the McDonald’s or the Burger King. Kids aren’t realizing what they are eating, and what they should be eating. I don’t blame them, with the amount of advertisements and restaurants, it’s hard to resist. One of the main reasons this is happening is because kids & teens don’t know what they are eating. As they put that burger to there mouth they tell themselves;† There’s tomato and lettuce in here, it’s not that bad†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . They are missing the trans fat filled sauces and the oil fried hamburger. These kinds of foods have no vitamins and lack of nutrition. We don’t know the science behind these foods, what they put in them or how they make them. There’s been a tremendous amount of controversy over McDonald’s burgers since celebrity chef Jamie Oliver demonstrated how meat scraps and sinew are spun in a centrifuge and â€Å"washed† with ammonium hydroxide, which has also become known as † HYPERLINK â€Å"http://www.care2.com/greenliving/pink-slime-now-just-an-option-for-schools.html† â€Å"_blank† Pink Slime.â€Å" This chemical is used in fertilizers and cleaning products. According to Oliver it is used in 70 percentages of ground beef in the United States but does not require inclusion on ingredient lists because the US Department of Agriculture classifies it as a â€Å"process† not an â€Å"ingredient† even though residues of this process are left behind in the meat consumed. He says, †Basically, we‘re taking a product that would be sold in the cheapest way for dogs, and after this process, is being given to human beings.† Thanks to the amount of fa st food restaurants there has bin a growth of fast food consumers has gone up with larger numbers than ever before. More restaurants are selling and more people are buying. This year, there were 160,0000 fast food restaurants counted in America. This is 10,0000 more than last year.

Cooking Paper Essay

In the article by Mark Bitten, he makes the agreement that most people can feed themselves a healthy meal at home for less money than a meal from the local fast food establishment. His position is that food cooked at home is more nutritious, better for the environment and better for families in general. I agree with Mark Bitten, Junk food such as McDonald’s which most lower income families have for dinner cause its cheaper instead of having something healthy like broccoli which is less affordable is the problem America is having. All of this junk food is the reason why Americans are so overweight, when in fact hyper processed food remains more expensive than food cooked at home. The government subsidies given to the fast food companies are ridiculous. There are five fast-food restaurants for every super market in the United States. The adjusted inflation price of fresh produce has increased by 40 percent while inconceivable the price of soda and processed food has decreased by as much as 30 percent. There could be hundreds of arguments and statements made about this article but what it comes down to to stop our country from dying is real cultural changes. Cooking at home and making food had to become part of normal life, Americans need to see that McDonald’s is hurting them more then it’s helping them. There addictive behaviors are influencing younger kids to be born into bad habits and start a chain of obesity and eating bad. Efforts are being put into slowly stop this, Grocery stores in California are making things affordable for low income people, Zoning laws are restricting the number of fast food restaurants in certain areas, and there have been several programs to educate and build fresh food areas around America. Personally I have not eaten McDonald’s, Wendy’s or Burger King in 11 years and have made efforts to show how bad there food really is and how harming it is. Hopefully people can see the negative effects Junk food has on American’s and the positive effects cooking food at home it has on American’s and this problem can be resolved so we can live in a better world.

How did Ronald Reagan deal with the end of the Cold War Do you think Assignment

How did Ronald Reagan deal with the end of the Cold War Do you think he and Mikhail Gorbachev were partners or opponents - Assignment Example The SDI had lasers and other expertise to wipe out Soviet missiles in USA which lead to huge economic crisis in Soviet Union (D’Souza). The alarming situation of Soviet Union during the end of 1987 was the main reason for the Cold War to end. Mikhail Gorbachev took many reforms and policies to end the Cold War rivalry. His opinions were opposite to Reagan and followed the policies of Stalin. A summit was held in 1986 where Reagan and Gorbachev could not reach any negotiation due to difference in their agreements over missile defence (D’Souza). Later in 1987, new arms treaty was signed between USA and Soviet Union. The main focus of the treaty was to eliminate intermediate range nuclear force from Europe. This was done to reduce the nuclear attacks, collection of weapons and develop peace between the nations. The summit of 1987 addressed on eliminating nuclear forces and use of nuclear powers during war. Regan, Ronald, Cold War, Reference Library, Vol. 4, 2004, Web. August 4, 2014 from:

Robert F. Kennedy's Assassination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Robert F. Kennedy's Assassination - Essay Example In one of the speeches that Robert Kennedy in 1962, he was quoted, "The future is not a gift: it is an achievement. Every generation helps make its own future. This is the essential challenge of the present.†1 It is truly a tragedy for the American government to lose leaders with advocacies like the 2 Kennedy’s. Robert Francis Kennedy (RFK) was filled with not just emotion but passion towards leading and serving the country and its people. Yet, just like his older brother John, RFK was assassinated. The will within the person to live is so strong that RFK only died more than 24 hours after the assassination.2 RFK was said to be just like his older brother to have both the brains, the heart and the capabilities to assume the presidency. Bobby, as RFK is fondly called, failed to achieve the coveted post despite the credentials that he has under his belt. The odds are very much going his way and Bobby was just a few more steps towards becoming the next American president. A ll was shattered a couple of minutes past midnight on the 5th of June 1968. His life was ended during his presidential campaign at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, CA by a gun shot. A man with a very promising future was killed by an assassin identified as the Palestinian-American Sirhan Bishara Sirhan.3 Since it was the period for the presidential campaign, media was all over the place. ... All of the 3 assassinations were highly publicized. However, RFK’s assassination seemed to be more traumatic since it was the 2nd Kennedy assassination in less than half a decade. In the filed video coverage of RKF’s presidential campaign in 1968, the crowd’s jubilation was turned into panic and fear as the sound of the gunshot echoed in the atmosphere. According to Melanson et al: Cameras captured the frenzied struggle to subdue the attacker. They showed us the terrible vision of Robert Kennedy lying on the floor and bleeding profusely. To this day, many people believe that these same cameras captured the actual shooting (as the Zapruder film had done in President Kennedy’s assassination); some are insistent to the point of anger that it’s all in film†¦No photographic record of the actual shooting is known to exist.5 The picture of the blood-covered RFK lying on the floor is truly quite disturbing and heartbreaking. It is disturbing because of the graphical representation of a man respected and eyed to be the next president of a very powerful nation. One can think that the photo being published and circulated in media can be considered as an invasion of privacy. Even if the person involved in the picture is a public servant, such situation should be kept private as to reserve the dignity and respectability of the person. The picture of a dying man lying on the floor covered with his own blood can trigger so many emotions within a nation.6 Since the assailant was identified, the assassination case was considered closed. That is what the public was made to believe. People from different walks of life might agree or disagree with the previous

Insolvency law in United Kingdom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Insolvency law in United Kingdom - Essay Example It should be noted that the international assistance for which provision is made by section 426(4) is limited not only in terms of the foreign countries from which requests for such assistance can be entertained, but also in terms of the authorities by which it may be requested and provided. The only form of assistance that can be obtained is on a 'court-to-court' basis: it is not open to an office holder appointed in foreign insolvency proceedings to make a direct, personal request for assistance to an English court, nor to any other person or authority, under the auspices of this statutory provision. Moreover, the ambit of the power to give assistance is narrowed still further, since it is expressed to be exercisable by 'the courts having jurisdiction in relation to insolvency law in any part of the United Kingdom', in response to requests for assistance submitted by 'the courts having the corresponding jurisdiction' in a country or territory which has been designated for this spec ific purpose. It is therefore necessary to determine which courts are qualified to participate in the process, a question whose resolution is partly dependent on the arrangements in force, in the United Kingdom and in the other country concerned, for the allocation of jurisdiction in relation to insolvency law. ... In most cases it is likely that a request for assistance will be addressed to the High Court, as the court endowed with a comprehensive jurisdiction covering both individual and corporate insolvency. However, it should be noted that where the debtor has a residential address, or carries on business, within a County Court insolvency district outside the London Insolvency District or (in the case of a company) has its registered office in such a district outside London, the County Court in question has a jurisdiction concurrent, and also co-extensive, with that of the High Court. In terms of speed, and also cost, there may sometimes be advantages in addressing a request for assistance to the appropriate County Court. (V. Markham Lester, 1995) A literal reading of subsection (4), taken in isolation, might therefore yield the conclusion that the English court has an unconditional duty to provide assistance to courts which meet the stated criteria rendering them eligible to request it. Such a conclusion would be premature however, because subsection (4) itself supplies no indication as to the nature of the assistance which the courts are required to provide. For this, it is necessary to refer to subsection (5), whose full provisions are as follows: For the purposes of subsection (4) a request made to a court in any part of the United Kingdom by a court in any other part of the United Kingdom or a relevant country or territory is authority for the court to which the request is made to apply, in relation to any matters specified in the request, the insolvency law which is applicable by either court in relation to comparable matters falling within its jurisdiction. In exercising its discretion under

Biotechnology Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Biotechnology - Movie Review Example That it does not necessarily follow that a superior gene can guarantee success such as the case of Jerome Eugene Morrow who had an excellent genetic predisposition but has poor coping mechanism in the vicissitudes of life that made him a literal â€Å"invalid† due to a failed suicide. This induced aversion to Gattaca’s overemphasis to genes inadvertently drew the audience to Vincent to become more sympathetic with his effort to become an astronaut. The rhetorical strategy of using ethos or the elevation of the character to get the audience to Vincent’s side was very prominent in the film. This is especially obvious in scenes where Vincent beat his brother Anton, who has a superior genetic make than him, in â€Å"Chicken† swimming contest because Vincent is more determined to win by not leaving anything to get back. In the street also where Vincent had to cross without the contact lenses revealed Vincent’s determination to realize his goal as it was shown in the film that he cannot almost see anything yet he still crossed it. This was Vincent’s main selling point in the film that would contrast him from Gattaca’s over reliance on predetermined genetic make-up. In highlighting his qualities such as his persistence, determination, will and discipline, Vincent showed character which is not determined by genetics but is a more important determinant in making an individual a success. Early in the film, Vincent’s experience of being discriminated that emboldened him to persist in realizing his dream is the film’s usage of pathos or emotional appeal for the audience to side with Vincent. Andrew Niccol knows that is our nature to be sympathetic with the underdogs and the oppressed and being such, this was thoroughly exploited in the film Gattaca for the audience to connect with the main protagonist, the invalid who beat valids

One question to answer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

One question to answer - Assignment Example According to the research, family-centered service also known as Family-centered care promotes prominently context and child health is an aspect that is taken into consideration here. Due to childhood chronic conditions and the diverse changes of the surrounding environment, anticipation to admit the comings of family health care services is at the top gear as far as living a good life becomes an instrument of home in our lives (Nies 10). An educational class is the core principal that forms part of family health services. This includes health, nutrition, oral health, and parenting skills. In the presence of heath care coordination, the norm help one to keep records of accomplishment of their children as far as immunizations activities is of concern. Moreover, playing a role of a parent ensures that one provides maximum parenting care to his or her child through family nutrition and support. Family health services is of useful to us since it enables one to deliver parenting services, health education to their children as well as nutrition and when all this is met life become fun rather than

Native Americans Essay Example for Free

Native Americans Essay Native Americans were the first people living in the United States until Europeans arrived, sought to colonize and take over. During this time, Native Americans were subjugated to warfare, new government and losing their lands. Forced to submit to White settlers, many Native Americans have had to choose between assimilating into a White culture or preserving their heritage and ancestry. This essay will discuss public policy regarding Native Americans and provide some examples pertaining to ethnocentrism and cultural relativity. Public Policy and Ethnocentrism From early on, Native American culture has been on a collision with White society. During the colonial period, the government did not want to have any issues with settlers and Native Americans. Schaefer mentions that Whites were to take precedence regardless of the needs or interference by tribes (150). The secretary of war was put in charge of the Native Americans with regard to any Federal communications. Later in 1824 the Bureau of Indian Affairs was created as an intermediary between the Native Americans and the government (Schaefer 150). As White settlers started to move west, they had felt that Native Americans were blocking their progress. This led to the Indian Removal Act that was passed in 1824 which forced several tribes to leave their ancestral lands. Schaefer also mentions, â€Å"the federal government enacted legislation that affected them with minimal consultation† (151). The government’s goal was to weaken tribal institutions so that Native Americans would assimilate. The government still tried to make Native Americans become more like White homesteaders. In 1887 the government passed the Allotment Act which would turn tribal members into land owners. While each family was given 160 acres, there were some stipulations. Schaefer mentions that â€Å"the act prohibited Native Americans from selling the land for 25 years† (153). The other issue was with the Native Americans not knowing how to farm or utilize the land. They also did not receive assistance or training from the  government and as a result, did not do well with homesteading. Since the land could not be legally sold, the Bureau of Indian Affairs ended up leasing the land to White landowners (Schaefer 153). During this time, it was believed that Native Americans should put aside tribal identities and assimilate into White culture. As time progressed, the Indian Reorganization Act which was also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act was passed in 1934 (Schaefer 153). This act was supposed to recognize tribal identity but still pushed for assimilation. Tribes would be allowed to create a constitution and elect leaders within reservations. The Reorganization Act did allow Native Americans to have more control over actions taken on their behalf. Schaefer mentions that this act had tried to unite government agencies with tribal dealings by immersing Native Americans in procedures common to White society (153). However, the act still allowed for non-Native Americans to control issues regarding reservations. Schaefer states that, â€Å"The Reorganization Act sought to assimilate Native Americans into the dominant society on the dominant group’s terms† (153). Moving Towards Cultural Relativity After years of the United States government trying to force Native Americans to Assimilate, they have started to realize that their efforts were not facilitating pluralism. Schaefer mentions the Termination Act of 1953 â€Å"which was considered a controversial government policy towards Native Americans† (156). This act cancelled federal services such as medical care, schools, and road equipment that took effect immediately. There was no coordination between tribes or government agencies which affected the tribes in a disastrous manner. They were not able to perform some basic services such as road repair or fire protection without the government. While this policy was supposed to give Native Americans the ability to self-govern it was viewed as a way to reduce services and save money. With life on an Indian reservation being economically depressed, the government decided to try to lure Native Americans away from the reservations. In 1952 the Bureau of Indian Affairs had started programs to  relocate Native Americans to urban areas. In 1962 one of the programs was called the Employment Assistance Program. Schaefer states, â€Å"the purpose was to relocate individuals or families at the government’s expense to urban areas where the job opportunities were† (157). This program was not successful as many Native Americans returned back to their reservations. Schaefer also mentions that this program had some unintended consequences where the Native Americans who left were better educated and created a brain-drain (157). This also caused many of them to understand the predicament that they were faced with in both the city and federal reservations. Through all that they have been through, Native Americans have managed to work collectively through Pan-Indianism intertribal social movements. It has caused them to unite within a common identity because of political goals. In 1944 The National Congress of American Indians was formed in Denver, Colorado and registered itself as a lobby in Washington, D.C. (Schaefer 157). Their goal was to raise issues with regard to the Native American perspective as it operated similar to the NAACP. This group was able to create the Indian Claims Commission and force the Bureau of Indian Affairs to stop the practice of termination. In 1968 the American Indian Movement was created to monitor police actions and document charges of police brutality (Schaefer 157). Schaefer states that â€Å"sovereignty which refers to tribal self-rule is supported by every U.S. president since the 1960’s† (160). This is a very complex legal relationship since there are numerous legal cases where the Supreme Court has to rule which tribes may rule themselves and where they might be subject to state and federal laws. Tribal members pay federal income, social security, unemployment and property taxes but do not pay state income tax if they live and work on reservations (Schaefer 160). Sovereignty links the actions of the federal government with individual American Indians. Schaefer argues that the government acts as a gatekeeper in determining which tribes are recognized (161). In 1978 the Department of the Interior established the â€Å"acknowledgement process† to decide if more tribes could qualify for a government to government relationship. Conclusion With all that the Native Americans have been through over the years it would seem that many of the early policies were not effective because they did not produce the desired results of forced and immediate assimilation. The only thing that the government was able to do was drive these people off their lands, relocate them and create a sense of distrust. I do feel that the Employment Assistance program did contribute to having some Native Americans move out of their comfort zone and seek out other opportunities. It did cause many Native Americans to take collective action and form groups to lobby for their rights. With regard to sovereignty, it seems that Native Americans are trying to assimilate themselves by working with the government to gain recognition and reap the economic benefits. Today it seems that Native Americans are slowly assimilating into White society because of their involvement in protests, lobbying, politics and business. While Native Americans might not have achieved complete pluralism, they are still trying to adapt to contemporary society. References Schaefer, R. (2012). Native Americans: The First Americans (13th ed), Chapter 6 (pp. 147-171). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.

Force majeure and hardship

Force majeure and hardship INTRODUCTION A basic and universally accepted principle of contract law is pacta sunt servanda. This principle means that each party to an agreement is responsible for its non-execution, even if the cause of the failure is beyond his power and was not or could not be foreseen at the time of signing the agreement. The principle reflects natural justice and economic requirements because it binds a person to their promises and protects the interests of the other party. Since effective economic activity is not possible without reliable promises, the importance of this principle has to be emphasized. On the other hand, practice has demonstrated that on many occasions application of this principle may lead to the opposite of its aim. That is to say, the situation existing at the conclusion of the contract may subsequently have changed so completely that the parties, acting as reasonable persons, would not have made the contract, or would have made it differently, had they known what was going to happen. This situation is unlikely to arise with short-term contracts, which often exhibit a simple structure where non-performances are exchanged for money. In international trade, however, many contracts are of a more complicated structure, and even if they are not long term contracts, they frequently exist over a substantive period. International trade transactions generally imply a greater element of uncertainty because they are subject to political and economic influences in foreign countries. Different legal concepts deal with this problem of changed circumstances and provide for the discharge of the duty to perform of one or both parties when a contract has become unexpectedly onerous or impossible to perform. The classic concept of force majeure is primarily directed at settling the problems resulting from non-performance, either by suspension or by termination. Concepts likeimpr ¿Ã‚ ½visionor hardship are mainly directed at the adaptation of the contract. Although all legal systems take notice of the situation of changed circumstances, the conditions under which they allow the defence of force majeure vary. Furthermore, the adaptation of the contract is not universally accepted. Attempts have been made to tackle these problems on an international level. In particular, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) addresses the issue of changed circumstances. It avoids reference to the existing concepts because it has developed a system of its own. This concept, however, is generally not regarded as being able to solve the problem entirely. Parties to international sales transactions, therefore, frequently include special clauses in their contracts dealing with matters of hardship and force majeure. This paper aims to give some idea of the concepts of hardship and force majeure in the context of international sales transactions. First, the concepts will be discussed on a theoretical basis. The different approaches to the situation of changed circumstances in the major legal systems will then be discussed. Article 79 of the CISG will be introduced, interpreted, and its scope determined. It will then be possible to ascertain if, to what extent, and what kind of clauses dealing with the matter of changed circumstances, should be inserted into international sales contracts. Force majeure and hardship clauses will then be discussed in more detail. Finally, the use of standard forms of contract, with special regard to the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, will be considered, and a recommendation as to force majeure and hardship clauses will be made. FORCE MAJEURE AND HARDSHIP THE CONCEPTS IN GENERAL The two major legal concepts dealing with the problem of changed circumstances are those of force majeure and hardship. In order to understand the interpretation and discussion of Article 79 of the CISG and the deliberations on force majeure and hardship clauses in international sales contracts, the two concepts first have to be considered on a general and theoretical basis. 1. Force majeure The concept of force majeure, providing for the discharge of one or both parties when a contract has become impossible to perform, has evolved progressively in international trade practice by assuming many original and autonomous features distinct from similar legal concepts. The approach of municipal legal systems to situations of force majeure varies from country to country. Despite these circumstances, certain general characteristics of the conception of force majeure can be determined. The roots of the classic concept lie in the Code Napol ¿Ã‚ ½on, from which the words force majeure (an irresistible compulsion or coercion) are taken. An English courts interpretation of the words held that they have a more extensive meaning than act of God or vis major. Act of God is defined as an event happening independently of human volition, which human foresight and care could not reasonably anticipate or avoid. According to the judgment, the words force majeure could cover the dislocation of a business due to a universal coal strike or accidents to machinery, but would not cover bad weather, football matches, or a funeral.In Brauer Co. v. James Clark it was held that a party could not rely on force majeure simply because the price it was required to pay for the goods was considerably in excess of the price at which it had contracted to sell them. In more general terms, it can be said that force majeure occurs when the performance of a contract is impossible due to unforeseeable events beyond the control of the parties. The following is a possible definition of force majeure: Force majeure occurs when the law recognizes that without default of either party a contractual obligation has become incapable of being performed because the circumstances in which the performance is called for would render it impossible. I promised to do this but I cannot due to some irresistible unforeseeable and uncontrollable event. A similar definition is contained in Article 7.1.7 of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts where, under the headline of Force majeure, it is stated that a partys non-performance is excused if that party proves that the non-performance was due to an impediment beyond its control, and that it could not reasonably be expected to have taken the impediment into account at the time of the conclusion of the contract or to have avoided or overcome the impediment or its consequences. The aim of the classic concept of force majeure, as is reflected in Article 7.1.7 of the UNIDROIT Principles, is to settle the problems resulting from non-performance either by suspension or termination. 2. Hardship The concept of hardship is usually discussed in the context of hardship clauses, which are frequently introduced into contracts in international trade. The term hardship, however, has also been used in legislation, e.g., in the Australian National Security (Landlord and Tenant) Regulations and the Landlord and Tenant (Amendment) Act 1948-1964. With respect to those rules, courts had to interpret the term hardship and determine its scope. Thus, it was held that hardship, as used in the National Security Regulations, may be regarded as the subjective effect of a detrimental nature upon the person concerned. In another decision interpreting the Landlord and Tenant Act, hardship was said to include any matter of appreciable detriment whether financial, personal or otherwise. The circumstances in which hardship generally exists (as usually set out in hardship clauses) normally incorporate three elements. First, the circumstances must have arisen beyond the control of either party; self-induced hardship is irrelevant. Second, they must be of fundamental character. Third, they must be entirely uncontemplated and unforeseeable. A clear descriptive definition of hardship is contained in the UNIDROIT Principles. It reads as follows (Article 6.2.2): There is hardship where the occurrence of events fundamentally alters the equilibrium of the contract either because the cost of a partys performance has increased or because the value of the performance a party receives has diminished, and the events occur or become known to the disadvantaged party after the conclusion of the contract; the events could not reasonably have been taken into account by the disadvantaged party at the time of the conclusion of the contract; the events are beyond the control of the disadvantaged party; and the risk of the events was not assumed by the disadvantaged party. The concept of hardship intends to solve problems of such fundamentally altered circumstances by adapting the contract to the new situation. 3. Differences between the two concepts The concepts of hardship and force majeure seem to be related to each other, particularly since they share some features: they both cater to situations of changed circumstances. The difference between the two concepts is most aptly described in such a way: hardship is at stake where the performance of the disadvantaged party has become much more burdensome, but not impossible, while force majeure means that the performance . . . the party concerned has become impossible, at least temporarily. Moreover, there seems to be a functional difference between the two concepts. Hardship constitutes a reason for a change in the contractual program of the parties. The aim of the parties remains to implement the contract. Force majeure, however, is situated in the context of non-performance, and deals with the suspension or termination of the contract. DIFFERENT APPROACHES OF DOMESTIC LEGAL SYSTEMS The approach of municipal legal systems to the problem of changed circumstances varies from country to country. Although all these concepts are related to each other, since they share important features, the distinction between them is extremely important in drafting choice of law clauses in international contracts. Furthermore, it is important to have knowledge about the law that will apply when a force majeure or hardship clause is left out of a contract, and no unified international rules are applicable. Moreover, in order to have relevance and serve a purpose, force majeure and hardship clauses should differ from the doctrine that would be applicable to the problem of changing circumstances, if such clauses were left out of the contract. Thus, the scope of those doctrines has to be determined. The illustration and comparison of force majeure and hardship will also give a deeper insight into the structure and functioning of these concepts in general. For this purpose English, American, French, German and South African law and their approaches to the situation of changed circumstances will now be analyzed. 1. England Consistent with the common law approach to strict liability for breach, the traditional common law rule was that conditions rendering performance impossible, that occurred after the execution of a contract, did not excuse performance. The reason for this was stated inParadine v. Janewhere the Kings Bench held that: When the party by his own contract creates a duty or charge upon himself, he is bound to make it good, if he may, notwithstanding any accident by inevitable necessity, because he might have provided against it by the contract. Such a rigid interpretation prevailed in the United Kingdom until 1863. InTaylor v. Caldwell the court changed its traditional opinion: the strict rule should only apply when the contract is positive and absolute, and not subject to any condition either express or implied. The court held that in contracts where performance depends on the continued existence of a given person or thing, a condition is implied that the impossibility of performance arising from the perishing of the person or thing shall excuse the performance. With this theory of implied condition, the doctrine of impossibility was introduced into English law. The concept of frustration, which developed from the doctrine of impossibility, is based on the sole interpretation of the intent of the parties. If stemming from an act of God, the performance of a contract is to take place under circumstances which are totally different from what the parties envisaged, and therefore, the agreement is frustrated. The concept originates from the famousCoronation cases. For instance, in one such case, an apartment was rented for one day because it afforded a privileged view of the Coronation parade of Edward VII. When the parade was cancelled due to the Kings illness, the landlord sued for the rent. The court, however, decided the contract was frustrated because its execution was fundamentally and essentially different from what the parties had intended. According to the doctrine of frustration, the concept dealing with situations of changed circumstances in English law today, a contract can be frustrated by impossibility, physical, e.g., destruction of the subject-matter, or for legal reasons, e.g., illegality, or by the occurrence of a radical change in circumstances, so that the foundation of the contract has been vitiated. If the contract were to retain its validity under such changed circumstances, it would amount to a new and different contract. The doctrine, by covering situations which do not amount to the impossibility of the performance is thus wider than the concept of force majeure. When a contract is frustrated, a judge cannot amend or adjust it to the new situation. Frustration simply discharges the contract. Although the prerequisites of frustration are rather similar to those required by the concept of hardship, the former is final, by disallowing the adaptation of the contract, directed at another aim. 2. United States Also based on the doctrine of impossibility and its further developments, the United States doctrines regarding changed circumstances are carefully defined in both the U.S. Restatement (Second) of Contracts and the Uniform Commercial Code. Section 261 of the Restatement (Second) is entitled Discharge by Supervening Impracticability and reads as follows: Where, after a contract is made, a partys performance is made impracticable without his fault by the occurrence of an event, the non-occurrence of which was a basic assumption in which the contract was made, his duty to render that performance is discharged, unless the language or the circumstances indicate the contrary. The Uniform Commercial Code, in Section 2-615, entitled Excuse by failure of presupposed conditions also employs the term Impracticable. In both statutes this term encompasses impossible. The relevant paragraph of U.C.C. Section 2-615 reads: Except so far as a seller may have assumed a greater obligation and subject to the preceding section on substituted performance: (a) Delay in delivery or non-delivery in whole or in part by a seller who complies with paragraphs (b) and (c) is not in breach of his duty under a contract for sale if performance as agreed has been made impracticable by the occurrence of a contingency the non-occurrence of which was the basic assumption on which the contract was made or by compliance in good faith with any foreign or domestic governmental regulation or order whether or not it later proves to be invalid. U.C.C. Section 2-615 Paragraph (b) contains an allocation requirement in the event only part of a sellers capacity to perform is affected. Paragraph (c) states a notice requirement. According to its wording, U.C.C. Section 2-615 only excuses the seller from the delivery of the goods contracted for. The general belief, however, is that this provision is to be considered equally applicable to buyers. The concept of commercial impracticability, which discharges a partys duty although the event has not made performance absolutely impossible, has been adopted in order to call attention to the commercial character of the context in which the excuse defence is used. Courts, however, have been reluctant to accept anything short of impossibility as an excuse for performance. The United States approach to situations of changed circumstances is broader than that of the classical concept of force majeure. The United States approach does not allow the adaptation of the contract and because of the courts way of treating impracticability, it is not as far-reaching as the concept of hardship. 3. France Under French law, the line is drawn between the impossibility of the performance on the one hand, i.e., force majeure, and, on the other hand, circumstances which destabilize the contract where economic conditions are such that fundamental and far-reaching changes occur. The latter is called the doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½vision. In France, the principlepacta sunt servanda(as incorporated in Article 1134 of the French Civil Code) prevails over the principlerebus sic stantibus. If the contract does not contain any provision regarding events of changing circumstances, then, the performance of the contract will be enforced without any changes to the contract. A judge is not supposed to appraise the economic situation of the parties or to rule in equity against the wording of a contract. In principle, the only excuse for non-performance of the contract is force majeure. The doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½visionhas not been adopted by French courts. Article 1142 of the French Civil Code stipulates that any obligation to do, or not to do, is dissolved by damages whenever the debtor does not execute the obligation. Article 1148, however, specifies that damages are not due in the case of force majeure. While courts have applied those Articles strictly, some change and more flexibility is noticeable in recent case law. Although courts do not apply the doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½vision, they have not explicitly rejected it. The application of Article 1148 requires four conditions to be fulfilled simultaneously: the event is irresistible (this clearly distinguishes the force majeure fromimpr ¿Ã‚ ½vision): the event must be unforeseeable: the event is to be an outside one: The failure of suppliers or subcontractors or associates is no excuse for the contractor: the debtor is not at fault: The event should be unavoidable and absolutely beyond the control of the debtor. Article 1148, in recognizing that a contract can be discharged due to force majeure, is not mandatory law. Parties are free to give their definition to force majeure events and the judge has to respect such definition. As the roots of the classical concept of force majeure lie in the Code Napol ¿Ã‚ ½on, this concept and the present approach to the problem of changed circumstances in France, correspond widely. A greater degree of flexibility in the latter has only been noted recently. The doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½visionis the counterpart of the concept of hardship. The former, however, is not part of French law. 4. Germany The German approach to the problem is rather flexible. Under German law, the rulepacta sunt servandais certainly not adhered to anymore in the strictest sense. This is not surprising in a country where, after World War I, the value of the items on the menu in a restaurant could change between the placing of the order and the arrival of the bill. As a general rule, section 275 of the B ¿Ã‚ ½rgerliches Gesetzbuch discharges the debtor of his obligation if, after the conclusion of the contract, its performance was rendered impossible for reasons other than negligence, his own fault, or the negligence of his employees. The impossibility of performance (Unm ¿Ã‚ ½glichkeit) can be of a physical or legal nature. The performance may still be possible at a later time without unreasonable damage to the other party. As a consequence of World War I, some judges and legal scholars began advocating the doctrine ofUnm ¿Ã‚ ½glichkeitfor application to economic impossibility. According to such experts, the debtor cannot be forced to comply with efforts or sacrifices which are beyond what parties reasonably envisaged in good faith. This doctrine is called Opfergrenze. The doctrine ofOpfergrenzeis a suitable stepping stone to the famous German doctrine of theWegfall der Gesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlage. According to the latter doctrine, every contract has a basic aim, emanating from a basic intention of the parties, which cannot be achieved or realised in the absence of an existing environment, e.g. the prevailing economic and social order, the value of the currency, normal political conditions, etc. This definition of theGesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagebears close resemblance to therebus sic stantibus doctrine in international public law treaties. A line should be drawn between the so-called erg ¿Ã‚ ½nzende Vertragsauslegung (an interpretation of the contract which fills gaps) and theGesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagenlehre.According to the former, which requires a gap in the contract, the function of the judge is to complete the contract, whereby he should give an interpretation of what the parties actually would have wanted if a given event had been contemplated. According to theGesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagenlehre, the judge is not only allowed to complete a contract, but depending on the object of the contract, the judge can also change its terms or terminate it. There is a little difference and if so, not an essential difference between the reasoning in the classical force majeure concept and the German reasoning in theUnm ¿Ã‚ ½glichkeit. Furthermore, the doctrine of theWegfall der Gesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlage, aiming at an adaptation of the contract, is very similar to the concept of hardship. 5. South Africa Until 1919, there was a general assumption that . . . no difference between South African law and English law on the effect of supervening impossibility. The English approach was adopted in a number of cases until the case ofPeters, Flamman andCo v. Kokstad Municipality was decided. According to this case, if a person is prevented from performing his contract byvis majororcasus fortuitus. . . he is discharged from liability. In applying the principle that supervening impossibility discharges the contract, impossibility must be given the same meaning as when initial impossibility is under consideration, i.e., the impossibility must be absolute (as opposed to probable and relative) and it must not be the fault of either party. Most important is the fact that, ifvis majororcasus fortuitushas made it uneconomical for a party to carry out its obligations, it does not mean that it has become impossible. Additionally, sincePeters,Flamman and Co.there is no room in South African law for the English doctrine of frustration. The decision in the recent case ofKok v. Osborne and Another, however, could be a first step toward recognition of the concept of commercial impossibility in South African law. The plaintiff in this case (Mrs. Kok) entered into a contract of sale as the buyer . . . wrongly assumed that the seller had already been paid by a third person. The court held that the contract between the litigants hinged on the assumption that the defendant indeed had been paid, which in fact did not happen, and that the contract failed due to supervening impossibility of performance. In this case, the courts opintion was that South African law recognises commercial impracticability as a form of supervening impossibility as does the English. This decision, however, has been heavily criticised by commentators for different reasons. As a result, the doctrine of frustration under the English law is not a recognised part of South African law. Moreover, it is properly stated that supervening impossibility is not applicable in the present case. For these reasons, it is not likely that the case ofKok v. Osborne and Anotherconstitutes the starting point for a change in the South African approach to the problem of changing circumstances. Thus, one can conclude that the South African approach corresponds with the concept of force majeure. Situations of hardship do not discharge a party of its liability. ARTICLE 79 CISG Article 79 is the provision of the CISG, that deals with situations of changed circumstances. More precisely, it deals with the circumstances in which the buyer or seller may be excused from performance of his contractual obligations because of an extraneous event that is judged sufficiently important to warrant the excuse. This is a situation which is referred to as frustration, force majeure orWegfall der Gesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagein different legal systems. In subsequent chapters the legislative history of Article 79 and its significance for international trade will be outlined. Its contents, scope of application, and legal effect will also be analysed and evaluated. A. The significance of the CISG for international sales transactions Never before has the increase in international commerce been as significant as it has been during recent decades. Many difficulties occur in the context of an international sale of goods as a consequence of the considerable differences in the national rules governing the law of sales. Thus, the expanding volume of international sales requires a common understanding of the legal rights and duties among partners to an international transaction. The CISG is understood as a modern uniform substitute for the wide array of foreign legal systems. It is based on the Uniform Law for the International Sale of Goods (ULIS) and the Uniform Law on the Formation of Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (ULF), drafted by the Rome Institute. These two Conventions had a rather limited success; only nine countries have become members. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), therefore, in a further attempt to unify the law governing the international sale of goods, prepared the Draft Convention on Contract for the International Sale of Goods. This was finalised at a diplomatic conference in Vienna in 1980 and entered into force in 1988. Nations are now ratifying or acceding to this Convention at a pace comparable to that of the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards when it was promulgated. The latter is said to be the most successful instance of international legislation in the history of commercial law. The CISG harmonised interests and ideas of different legal systems and of countries on different levels of economic development. Thus, a text that is suited for implementation in civil law countries and common law countries and for economies that are developed and those which are developing. According to Article 1, the Convention applies to international contracts for the sale of goods (if the parties have not rejected its application in their contract Article 6) when the States where the parties have their places of business, are in different contracting states, or the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State. As more than fifty countries have already enacted the Convention, among them major trading nations like the United States, Germany, France, or China, the Convention can apply to a large number of transactions. This number will continue to increase with the accession of further countries to the CISG. Only ten years after entering into force, the Convention can already be considered a success. Its significance for international sales transactions will increase in future years. B. Legislative history of Article 79 1. The role of legislative history As previously discussed, the CISG was created to free international commerce from a babel of diverse domestic legal systems. The ultimate goal of the Convention is the uniform application of the uniform rules. The Convention will often be applied by tribunals (judges or arbitrators) who are only intimately familiar with their own domestic law. These tribunals will be subject to a natural tendency to read the international rules in the light of the legal ideas of those specific systems. In order to control the damage, there will be long-range correctives through international critique of questionable interpretations; to this end measures have been taken for the collection and publication of caselaw produced under the Convention, e.g., CLOUT (Case Law On UNCITRAL Texts). These measures, however, take time to become effective. Fortunately, there need not be a delay in using the legislative history, which sets out the evolution of the uniform law, to counteract the tendency to view the Convention through the lenses of domestic law. The Conventions legislative history provides an international reference point in applying the uniform international law, and its record clarifies the purpose and in tent of the Conventions words. 2. The evolution of Article 79 Article 79 is a revised version of the exemption clause in ULIS (Article 74). Its development, as a part of the CISG, went through three stages: (1) The UNCITRAL Working Group (1970-1977); (2) Review by the full Commission (1977-1978); (3) The Diplomatic Conference (1980). Article 74 ULIS was criticised during the discussions of the Working Group. The clause was thought to make it too easy for the promisor to excuse his non-performance of the contract. Grounds for relief were not only physical or legal impossibility, or circumstances which fundamentally altered the character of the performance owed, but the provision could also apply to situations where performance had unexpectedly been made more difficult. Several members of the Working Group were, therefore, in favour of restricting the grounds for relief and making them more objective. The Working Group set up a drafting party, but it could not agree on a revised wording. It submitted a draft which was provisionally adopted by the drafting party (Alternative A) and an alternative proposal of the Norwegian observer (Alternative B). Following a study by the British delegate, the Working Group adopted a version which largely followed Alternative A. This based the promisors liability on fault, but transferred the basic concept of the impediment taken from Alternative B into the first paragraph. The version was adopted as Article 50 in the 1976 Geneva Draft. In reformulating the grounds for exemption in Article 51 of the 1977 Vienna Draft, the former Article 50, the requirement of the promisor not being at fault was abandoned and replaced by an objective test of the impediment beyond control. The 1978 New York Draft adopted Article 51 of the Vienna Draft relatively unchanged as Article 65. At the Vienna Conference, the Norwegian delegation proposed that paragraph (3) be supplemented by stating that if a temporary impediment ceased and the circumstances had radically changed to such an extent that it would clearly be unreasonable to continue to hold the promisor to his obligation, he should be released from that obligation. It was, however, argued that such an extension would introduce theth ¿Ã‚ ½orie de limpr ¿Ã‚ ½visioninto the Convention, and the proposal was therefore rejected. There was, nevertheless, agreement that the limitation in paragraph (3) should be deleted, i.e., that an exemption was only for the period during which the impediment existed. Contents of Article 79 CISG The meaning and purpose of the different provisions of Article 79 will now be considered in more detail. 1. The general rule paragraph (1) Paragraph (1) sets out the conditions under which a party is not l